Methods of producing and using virulence attenuated poxR mutant bacteria

ABSTRACT

Disclosed are bacteria having virulence attenuated by a mutation to the regulatory gene poxR. Also disclosed is a method of producing bacteria having virulence attenuated by mutating to the regulatory gene poxR. Such bacteria are useful for inducing an immune response in an animal or human against virulent forms of the bacteria with reduced risk of a virulent infection. Such bacteria are also useful to allow use of normally virulent bacteria as research tools with reduced risk of virulent infection. In a preferred embodiment, poxR attenuated bacteria can be used as a vaccine to induce immunoprotection in an animal against virulent forms of the bacteria. The disclosed bacteria can also be used as hosts for the expression of heterologous genes and proteins or to deliver DNA for genetic immunization. Attenuated bacteria with such expression can be used, for example, to deliver and present heterologous antigens to the immune system of an animal. Such presentation on live bacteria can lead to improved stimulation of an immune response by the animal to the antigens. It has been discovered that bacteria harboring a poxR mutation has significantly reduced virulence. Also disclosed is the nucleotide sequence of the poxR gene from  Salmonella typhimurium , and the amino acid sequence of the encoded protein. The encoded protein has 325 amino acids and has significant sequence similarity to previously uncharacterized open reading frames in  E. coli  and  Haemophilus influenzae.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The disclosed invention is in the general areas of bacteria with attenuated virulence and live bacterial vaccines.

The poxA gene (Van Dyk et al., J. Bacteriology169(10):4540-4546 (1987)), is a regulatory gene affecting expression of pyruvate oxidase (Chang and Cronan, J. Bacteriology 151(3): 1279-1289 (1982)). The poxA gene of E. coli is located at min 94. Enzymological and immunological data indicate that mutations in poxa have an 8 to 10-fold decrease in pyruvate oxidase levels (Chang and Cronan (1982); Chang and Cronan, J. Bacteriol. 154:756-762 (1983)). It has also been reported that poxA mutants grow more slowly than the isogenic wild-type in both minimal and rich media, while poxB mutants exhibit normal growth. Van Dyk and LaRossa, J. Bacteriol. 165(2):386-392 (1986), isolated 15 mutant Salmonella typhimurium strains sensitive to the herbicide sulfometuron methyl (SM) [N-[(4,6-dimethylpyrimidin-2-yl)aminocarbonyl]-2-methoxycarbonyl-benzenesulfonamide], following Tn10 mutagenesis. Among these SM-hypersensitive mutations, a poxA mutation was identified and mapped to the 94 min region of S. typhimurium genetic map (Van Dyk et al. (1987)), a location analogous to that of poxA in E. coli. The S. typhimurium poxA mutant, similarly to the E. coli poxA mutant, had reduced pyruvate oxidase activity and reduced growth rates (Van Dyk et al. (1987)). Furthermore, the E. coli and S. typhimurium poxA mutants shared several additional phenotypes including hypersensitivity to SM, to α-ketobutyrate, and to a wide range of bacterial growth inhibitors, such as antibiotics, amino acid analogs and dyes (Van Dyk et al. (1987)).

The immune system of animals is especially suited to reacting to and eliminating microorganisms which infect the animal. The sustained presence of the full range of antigens expressed by infecting microorganisms provide a stimulating target for the immune system. It is likely that these characteristics lead to the superior efficacy, on average, of vaccines using live attenuated virus. For similar reasons, live bacterial vaccines have been developed that express a desired antigen and colonize the intestinal tract of animals (Curtiss et al., Curr. Topics Micro. Immun. 146:35-49 (1989); Curtiss, Attenuated Salmonella Strains as Live Vectors for the Expression of Foreign Antigens, in New Generation Vaccines (Woodrow and Levine, eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1990) pages 161-188; Schödel, Infection 20(1): 1-8 (1992); Cárdenas and Clements, Clinical Micro. Rev. 5(3):328-342 (1992)). Most work to date has used avirulent Salmonella typhimuriumstrains synthesizing various foreign antigens for immunization of mice, chickens and pigs. Several avirulent S. typhi vectors have been evaluated in human volunteers (Tacket et al., Infect. Immun.60:536-541 (1992)) and several phase I clinical trials with recombinant avirulent S. typhi strains are in progress in the U.S. and Europe. An important safety advantage of the live attenuated bacterial vaccine vectors as compared to the use of viral vector based vaccines is the ability to treat an immunized patient with oral ciprofloxacin or amoxicillin, should an adverse reaction occur.

It is understood that live bacteria administered to animals, and especially to humans, should not be pathogenic. Thus, live bacterial vaccines need to be avirulent. However, many bacteria that are most effective in stimulating an immune response, and would thus be most attractive as the subject of a live bacterial vaccine, are also the most virulent. Accordingly, there is a need for methods to reduce, or attenuate, the virulence of bacteria.

It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide a method of attenuating the virulence of a bacteria.

It is another object of the present invention to provide a method for inducing an immune response in an animal using bacterial cells with attenuated virulence.

It is another object of the present invention to provide compositions for inducing an immune response in an animal comprising bacterial cells with attenuated virulence.

It is another object of the present invention to provide an isolated nucleic acid molecule containing or encoding the poxR gene.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Disclosed are bacteria having virulence attenuated by a mutation to the regulatory gene poxR. Also disclosed is a method of producing bacteria having virulence attenuated by mutating the regulatory gene poxR. Such bacteria are useful for inducing an immune response in an animal or human against virulent forms of the bacteria with reduced risk of a virulent infection. Such bacteria are also useful to allow use of normally virulent bacteria as research tools with reduced risk of virulent infection. In a preferred embodiment, poxR attenuated bacteria can be used as a vaccine to induce immunoprotection in an animal or human against virulent forms of the bacteria. The disclosed bacteria can also be used as hosts for the expression of heterologous genes and proteins. Attenuated bacteria with such expression can be used, for example, to deliver and present heterologous antigens to the immune system of an animal. Such presentation on live bacteria can lead to improved stimulation of an immune response by the animal to the antigens.

The poxR gene, which is referred to in the literature as poxA (Van Dyk et al., J. Bacteriology 169(10):4540-4546 (1987)), is a regulatory gene affecting expression of pyruvate oxidase (Chang and Cronan, J. Bacteriology151(3):1279-1289 (1982)) and having other, pleiotropic effects. The pleiotropic phenotype effects include reduced pyruvate oxidase activity, reduced growth rate, hypersensitivity to the herbicide sulfometuron methyl, to α-ketobutyrate and to amino acid analogs, and failure to grow in the presence of the host antimicrobial peptide, protamine. It has now been discovered that bacterial cell harboring a poxR mutation has significantly reduced virulence. Also disclosed is the nucleotide sequence of the poxR gene from Salmomella typhimurium, and the amino acid sequence of the encoded protein. The encoded protein has 325 amino acids and has significant sequence similarity to previously uncharacterized open reading frames in E. coli and Haemophilus influenzae.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a graph of the number of poxR mutant S. typhimurium UK-1 cells colonizing various organs (measured in colony forming units per gram of organ) in day-old chicks. Chicks were orally inoculated with 1×10⁸ cfu of poxR401::Tn10 strain MGN-791s at day of hatch. All birds survived and six days post-infection, the colonization levels in the spleen, liver, bursa and cecum were determined.

FIG. 2 is a graph of the number of poxR mutant S. typhimurium cells colonizing various organs (measured in mean colony forming units per organ) in BALB/c mice. Each time point consisted of group of three female BALB/c mice six weeks-old. Mice were inoculated orally (p.o.) with 2.6×10⁹ cfu at day 1. Three and seven days post-inoculation, mice were humanely euthanized and spleens (SP), mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN), and Peyer's patches (PP) were removed. The organs were disrupted in one milliliter of buffer saline and 0.1 ml of appropriate dilutions were plated in triplicate on MacConkey lactose plates.

FIGS. 3A, 3B, and 3C are graphs of the immune responses (measured as optical density at 405 nm of ELISA assays) of mice immunized with various amounts of S. typhimurium poxR mutant. The optical density at 405 nm in the ELISA assays is a measure of the level of immunoreactive antibodies present. FIG. 3A graphs the IgA response. FIG. 3B graphs the IgM response. FIG. 3C graphs the IgG response. Each treatment group consisted of five female BALB/c mice six weeks-old. Mice were inoculated intra peritoneally (i.p.) with 2.6×10⁴ cfu, and orally (p.o.) with 2.6×10⁷, 2.6×10⁸, and 2.6×10⁹ cfu at day 1. No booster immunization was performed. At day 28 post-immunization, sera were collected from immunized and non immunized control mice and subjected to an ELISA assay using purified Salmonella LPS as coating antigen. The graphs represent the mean absorbance at 405 nm (OD) for five mice. For individual mice, the serum was considered positive when the OD was greater than the mean OD of control mice plus two times the standard deviation of the same control sera. For the IgA response, 5/5 were positive in the i.p. group, 3/5 in the p.o. 2.6×10⁷ cfu group; 5/5 in the p.o. 2.6×10⁸ cfu group; 3/5 in the p.o. 2.6×10⁹ cfu group. For the IgM response, 3/5 were positive in the i.p. group; 2/5 in the p.o. 2.6×10⁷ cfu group; 2/5 in the p.o. 2.6×10⁸ cfu group; 2/5 in the p.o. 2.6×10⁹ cfu group. For the IgG response, 5/5 were positive in the i.p. group; 4/5 in the p.o. 2.6×10⁷ cfu group; 5/5 in the p.o. 2.6×10⁸ cfu group; 3/5 in the p.o. 2.6×10⁹ cfu group.

FIG. 4 is a diagram of partial restriction endonuclease maps of the poxR insert of plasmids pMEG-250, pMEG-251, pMEG-273, pMEG-280, and pMEG-274. The position of cleavage sites for some restriction endonucleases are shown. The direction of transcription of the poxR gene is indicated by the arrow. The plasmids from which each plasmid was derived is shown in parentheses underneath the plasmid name.

FIG. 5 is a graph of the effect of poxR mutation on invF and sipC gene expression. The expression was measured in units of catechol 2,3 dioxygenase, the product of the xylE reporter gene which was fused, in separate strains, to the chromosomal invF, sipC and asd genes. The poxR mutation was introduced in these strains by P22 transduction as described in the Example 4. Units are expressed as picomoles of catechol 2,3 dioxygenase per mg of protein×10².

FIGS. 6A and 6B show the nucleotide sequence of poxR gene (SEQ ID NO:1) and the deduced amino acid sequence of the encoded poxR protein (SEQ ID NO:2). The deduced amino acid sequence encoded by a partial second open reading frame (ORF2) is also shown (SEQ ID NO:3). The nucleotide sequence starts with the Sau 3AI site and ends at the Bam HI site. The putative Shine-Dalgamo sequences upstream of the open reading frames are at nucleotides 334-338 for poxR and nucleotides 1536-1540 for ORF2. The predicted ATG start codons begin at nucleotide 345 for poxR and nucleotide 1548 for ORF2.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Disclosed are bacteria having virulence attenuated by a mutation to the regulatory gene poxR. Also disclosed is a method of producing bacteria having virulence attenuated by mutating to the regulatory gene poxR. Such bacteria are useful for inducing an immune response in an animal against virulent forms of the bacteria with reduced risk of a virulent infection. Such bacteria are also useful to allow use of normally virulent bacteria as research tools with reduced risk of virulent infection. In a preferred embodiment, poxR attenuated bacteria can be used as a vaccine to induce immunoprotection in an animal or human against virulent forms of the bacteria. The disclosed bacteria can also be used as hosts for the expression of heterologous genes and proteins. Attenuated bacteria with such expression can be used, for example, to deliver and present heterologous antigens to the immune system of an animal or human. Such presentation on live bacteria can lead to improved stimulation of an immune response by the animal to the antigens.

The poxR gene, which is referred to in the literature as poxA (Van Dyk et al. (1987)), is a regulatory gene affecting expression of pyruvate oxidase (Chang and Cronan (1982)). Pyruvate oxidase itself is encoded by the gene poxB (Chang and Cronan (1983)). Because mutants defective in poxB did not exhibit most of the various phenotypes observed in poxA mutants, we concluded that poxR is a regulatory gene having effects other than those resulting from a decrease in poxB expression. The regulatory nature of poxA leads us to rename the gene poxR.

The pyruvate oxidase of Escherichia coli is a peripheral membrane protein that catalyses the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetate and CO₂ (Gennis and Hager, The enzymes of biological membranes, Volume 2 (Martonosi, ed., New York, N.Y., 1976), pages 493-504). Under laboratory conditions, this enzyme is not essential and conversion of pyruvate to acetate is considered wasteful of energy, compared with its conversion to acetyl coenzyme A (Gennis and Stewart, Escherichia coli and Salmonella, Volume 1 (Neidhardt, ed., ASM Press, Washington, D.C., 1996), pages 217-261). Pyruvate oxidase has been of interest primarily as a model for studying protein-lipid interaction. The enzyme is a water-soluble tetramer of 62 kDa identical subunits (Gennis and Stewart, 1996). It requires thiamine pyrophosphate, flavin adenine dinucleotide, and Mg²⁺ as cofactors (Gennis and Hager (1976); Bertagnolli and Hager, J. Biol. Chem. 266:10168-10173 (1991); Bertagnolli and Hager, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 300:364-371 (1993)). In the presence of the substrate and cofactors, the enzyme undergoes conformational changes and binds to E. Coli membrane vesicles and to phospholipid vesicles (Russell et al., J. Biol. Chem. 252:7883-7887 (1977); Schrock and Gennis, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 614:215-220 (1980)). This peripheral membrane binding is necessary for the terminal transfer of electron to ubiquinone-8 which is dissolved in the lipid bilayer (Grabau and Cronan, Biochemistry 25:3748-3751 (1986); Koland et al., Biochemistry23:445-453 (1984)).

The poxR gene has other regulatory effects as evidenced by the pleiotropic phenotype of poxR mutants. Observed effects include reduced pyruvate oxidase activity, reduced growth rate, hypersensitivity to the herbicide sulfometuron methyl, to α-ketobutyrate and to amino acid analogs, and failure to grow in the presence of the host antimicrobial peptide, protamine. The structural gene for pyruvate oxidase, poxB, has been located at min 18.7 on the E. coli genetic map (Chang and Cronan (1983)).

A. poxR Genes

The poxR gene of Salmonella typhimurium was cloned as described in Example 1. The disclosed poxR gene (SEQ ID NO: 1), and nucleic acids derived from the poxR gene, can be used in the disclosed methods to mutate the poxR gene in a bacterial cell. The poxR gene, and nucleic acids derived from the poxR gene, can also be used to identify, map, and clone other poxR genes and genes homologous to poxR. The poxR gene, and nucleic acids derived from the poxR gene, can also be used to determine the structure of poxR mutants by, for example, Southern blotting or Northern blotting. The poxR gene can also be used to produce poxR protein, using, for example, recombinant DNA expression techniques. Nucleic acids derived from the poxR gene can also be used as specific probes or primers for use in, for example, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or related amplification methods, nucleic acid sequencing, detection of the presence or absence of specific poxR sequences in nucleic acid samples. These and many other techniques for the general use of nucleotide and gene sequences are known and can be practiced using the disclosed poxR gene and nucleic acids derived from the poxR gene. It is preferred that the disclosed poxR gene be used to mutate the poxR genes of bacterial cells and to clone other poxR genes. An example of the use of the disclosed poxR gene for mutating the poxR gene in a bacterial cell is described in Example 3.

The poxR protein (SEQ ID NO:2) encoded by the poxR gene can be used to produce antibodies immunoreactive to the poxR protein. Such antibodies can be used, for example, to identify or detect poxR protein, peptides derived from the poxR protein, or proteins related to the poxR protein, in a method such as Western blotting. Such antibodies can also be used to clone, or to identify clones, of poxr, genes homologous to poxR, or other related genes. Methods for the production of antibodies, and numerous techniques for their use, are known. Numerous examples of these are described in Johnstone and Thorpe, Immunochemistry in Practice, Second Edition (Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1987).

As used herein “gene” refers to a nucleic acid segment encoding a protein or transcription product. As used herein, this term can refer to nucleic acid segments containing only a coding region, or to nucleic acid segments containing a coding region and any associated expression sequences such as a promoter, a translation initiation sequence, and regulatory sequences. The term gene can refer to both naturally occurring genes and those produced by genetic manipulation, such as recombinant DNA technology or mutagenesis.

As used herein “homologous” in reference to genes, other nucleic acid sequences, and proteins, refers to genes, other nucleic acid sequences, and proteins that are similar to each other, respectively. As a practical matter, homologous genes or proteins are identified on the basis of moderate to high sequence identity between the genes or proteins. Homology can also be identified by the presence of highly conserved subsequences in the genes or proteins (even where overall sequence similarity or identity is low). Such conserved subsequences are typically referred to as consensus sequences or domains. As used herein, a “homolog” of a first gene, other nucleic acid sequence, or protein refers to a second gene, other nucleic acid sequence, or protein, respectively, that is homologous to the first gene, other nucleic acid sequence, or protein. Preferred homologs of the poxR gene or the poxR protein are naturally occurring genes and proteins. Such genes and proteins are preferred targets of mutation in the disclosed method since a preferred purpose of such mutants is to attenuate the natural virulence of the bacteria in which the homologous gene (encoding the homologous protein) is present.

A preferred means of determining if a gene, other nucleic acid sequence, or protein is homologous to the poxR gene, a nucleic acid sequence derived from the poxR gene, or the poxR protein is to determine if the nucleotide or amino acid sequences of the nucleic acids or proteins have a sequence identity with a reference sequence of at least a specified threshold. As used herein, percent nucleotide or amino acid sequence identity is calculated as the percentage of aligned amino acids that match the reference sequence, where the sequence alignment has been determined using the alignment algorithm of Dayhoff et al., Methods in Enzymology 91: 524-545 (1983).

Preferred homologs of the poxR gene have a nucleotide sequence identity with nucleotides 345 to 1319 of SEQ ID NO:1 of greater than 40%, such as at least 50% nucleotide sequence identity, at least 60% nucleotide sequence identity, or at least 70% nucleotide sequence identity. Preferably, homologs of the poxR gene have at least 80% nucleotide sequence identity; more preferably, at least 90% nucleotide sequence identity; and most preferably, at least 95% nucleotide sequence identity with nucleotides 345 to 1319 of SEQ ID NO:1.

Other preferred homologs of the poxR gene encode an amino acid sequence having an amino acid sequence identity with SEQ ID NO:2 of greater than 40%, such as at least 50% amino acid sequence identity, at least 60% amino acid sequence identity, or at least 70% amino acid sequence identity. Preferably, homologs of the poxR gene encode an amino acid sequence having at least 80% amino acid sequence identity; more preferably, at least 90% amino acid sequence identity; and most preferably, at least 95% amino acid sequence identity with SEQ ID NO:2.

Preferred homologs of the poxR protein have an amino acid sequence identity with SEQ ID NO:2 of greater than 40%, such as at least 50% amino acid sequence identity, at least 60% amino acid sequence identity, or at least 70% amino acid sequence identity. Preferably, homologs of the poxR protein have at least 80% amino acid sequence identity; more preferably, at least 90% amino acid sequence identity; and most preferably, at least 95% amino acid sequence identity with SEQ ID NO:2.

Although poxR gene was identified 15 years ago, molecular and functional data on the gene and gene product are lacking. As disclosed herein, the poxR gene of S. typhimurium was cloned and the nucleotide sequence was determined (Example 1). Comparison of the amino acid sequence derived from the poxR gene to the available databases indicated high homology to an uncharacterized ORF of E. coli 94 min region (91% identity; 96% similarity) and Haemophilus influenzae (65% identity, 79% similarity). The poxR gene product was also characterized (Example 2) and the influence of a poxR mutation on S. typhimurium “pathogenicity island I”.

B. Bacterial Cells

Any bacterial cells in which a mutation to poxR, or a mutation to a gene in the cell that is homologous to poxR, is suitable for use in the disclosed methods and composition. Preferred bacterial cells are those that colonize, infect, or otherwise grow in or on animals. Particularly preferred are bacterial cells that colonize, infect, or grow in either or both the gastrointestinal tract or respiratory tract. Also preferred are bacterial cells that colonize, infect, or grow in the urogenital tract. Some preferred bacterial cells belong to one of the families Enterobacteriaceae, Micrococcaceae, Vibrionaceae, Pasteurellaceae, Mycoplasmataceae, or Rickettsiaceae. Within these families, preferred bacterial cells belong to one of the genera Salmonella, Shigella, Escherichia, Enterobacter, Serratia, Proteus, Yersinia, Citrobacter, Edwardsiella, Providencia, Klebsiella, Haffnia, Ewingella, Kluyvera, Morganella, Planococcus, Stomatococcus, Micrococcus, Staphylococcus, Vibrio, Aeromonas, Plessiomonas, Haemophilus, Actinobacillus, Pasteurella, Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma, Rickettsia, Coxiella, Rochalimaea, or Ehrlichia. Particular preferred bacterial cells are those that belong to the family Enterobacteriaceae.

Preferred bacterial cells belong to one of the genera Salmonella, Shigella, Escherichia, Enterobacter, Serratia, Proteus, Yersinia, Citrobacter, Edwardsiella, Providencia, Klebsiella, Hafnia, Ewingella, Kluyvera, Morganella, Planococcus, Stomatococcus, Micrococcus, Staphylococcus, Vibrio, Aeromonas, Plessiomonas, Haemophilus, Actinobacillus, Pasteurella, Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma, Ricketsia, Coxiella, Rochalimaea, Ehrlichia, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Aerococcus, Gemella, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pedicoccus, Bacillus, Corynebacterium, Arcanobacterium, Actinomyces, Rhodococcus, Listeria, Erysipelothrix, Gardnerella, Neisseria, Camylobacter, Arcobacter, Wolinella, Heliobacter, Achomobacter, Acinetobacter, Agrobacterium, Alcaligenes, Chryseomonas, Comamonas, Eikenella, Flavimonas, Flavobacterium, Moraxella, Oligella, Pseudomonas, Skewanella, Weeksella, Xanthomonas, Bordetella, Franciesella, Brucella, Legionella, Afipia, Bartonella, Calymmatobacterium, Cardiobacterium, Streptobacillus, Spirillum, Peptostreptococcus, Peptococcus, Sarcinia, Coprococcus, Ruminococcus, Propionibacterium, Mobiluncus, Bifidobacterium, Eubacterium, Lactobacillus, Rothia, Clostridium, Bacteroides, Porphyromonas, Prevotella, Fusobacterium, Bilophila, Leptotrichia, Wolinella, Acidaminococcus, Megasphaera, Veilonella, Norcardia, Actinomadura, Norcardiopsis, Streptomyces, Micropolysporas, Thernoactinomycetes, Mycobacterium, Treponema, Borrelia, Leptospira, or Chlamydiae.

Particularly preferred are bacterial cells that belong to one of the genera Salmonella, Shigella, Escherichia, Enterobacter, Serratia, Proteus, Yersinia, Citrobacter, Edwardsiella, Providencia, Klebsiella, Hafnia, Ewingella, Kluyvera, or Morganella. Most preferred are bacterial cells that belong to one of the genera Salmonella or Escherichia.

It is preferred that bacterial cells having a poxR mutation also contain other features which attenuate their virulence and increase their immunogenicity. For example, strains of different Salmonella serotypes can be rendered avirulent by methods known to those skilled in the art, for example, 1) by introducing mutations that impose a requirement for aromatic amino acids and vitamins derived from precursors in this pathway (Stocker et al., Dev. Biol. Stand. 53:47-54 (1983), Hoiseth et al., Nature 291(5812):238-239 (1981)), 2) by mutating genes for global regulators such as cya and crp (Curtiss and Kelly, Infect. Imm. 55:3035 (1987)), phoP (Miller et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:5054-8 (1989), Galán and Curtiss, Microb. Pathogen. 6:433-443 (1989)), and ompR (Dorman et al., Infect. Immun. 57:2136-40 (1989)), 3) by mutating genes for lipopolysaccharide (LPS) synthesis, such as by galE (Germanier and Furer, Infect. Immun. 4:663-73 (1971), Germanier and Furer, J. Infect. Dis. 131:553-8 (1975)), although this alone may be insufficient (Hone et al., Infect. Immun.56:1326-1333 (1988)), pmi (Collins et al., Infect. Immun. 59:1079-1085 (1991)), 4) by mutating genes needed for colonization of deep tissues, such as cdt (Kelly et al., Infect. Immun. 60:4881-4890 (1992); Curtiss et al., Devel. Biol. Stand. 82:23-33 (1994)), or 5) by preventing expression of genes for proteases required at high temperature, such as htrA (Johnson et al., Mol. Microbiol. 5:401-407 (1991). Strains possessing mutations in phoQ (Miller et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:5054 (1989)) have the same phenotype as mutations in phoP. Strains with mutations in either phoP or phoQ are referred to herein collectively as phoP mutants. It is preferred that mutations in the above described genes be introduced as deletions since this will preclude reversion mutations and enhance the safety of the strains containing them. Subsequent to the discovery that Salmonella strains with mutations in the genes described above are avirulent and immunogenic, it was observed that many of these strains exhibited, after oral administration, nearly wild-type abilities to invade and persist in the GALT and to colonize other lymphoid tissues such as mesenteric lymph nodes, liver, and spleen, but without causing disease symptoms. As a consequence, these attenuated strains are capable of stimulating strong mucosal, systemic and cellular immune responses in irimmunized animal hosts that confer protective immunity to challenge with virulent wild-type Salmonella strains.

Any Salmonella having a poxR mutation can be endowed with the ability to express important colonization or virulence antigens from other bacterial, viral, mycotic and parasitic pathogens at a high level within an immunized animal host (Clements, Pathol. Immunopathol. Res. 6:137-146 (1987); Dougan et al., Parasite Immun. 9:151-60 (1987); Chatfield et al., FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 7:1-7 (1993); Curtiss et al., in Virulence mechanisms of bacterial pathogens, (Roth, American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C., 1988) pages 311-328; Curtiss et al., Dev. Biol. Stand. 82:23-33 (1994); Doggett and Curtiss, Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 327:165-73 (1992); Schödel, Semin Immunol. 2:341-9 (1990)).

C. Method of Producing Bacterial Cells Having Attenuated Virulence

In S. typhimurium, mutations in several global regulatory loci including cya/crp (Curtiss and Kelly (1987)), phoPQ (Miller et al. (1989)), rpoS (Robbe-Saule et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 126(2):171-176 (1995)) have been associated with reduced virulence. By examining the role of the poxR gene in the pathogenicity of S. typhimurium, it was discovered that mutation of poxR reduces the virulence of the cells.

The disclosed method of producing a bacterial cell having attenuated virulence involves mutating the poxR gene, or its homolog, in the bacterial cell. The mutation can be of any type and have any effect on expression of the poxR gene or on the activity of the poxR protein so long as the virulence of the bacterial cell is reduced. Preferred mutations are those that prevent or reduce transcription of the poxR gene, prevent or reduce translation of poxR mRNA, or which mutate the encoded poxR protein so that it is no longer active or has reduced activity. In this context, activity of a mutant poxR protein refers to its phenotypic effect on virulence. Numerous general methods for mutating genes in bacterial cells are known and most are suitable for making poxR mutants. Most preferred are deletion mutations that result in the production of a significantly truncated poxR protein. Such mutations are stable. An example of the disclosed method involving the production of such a deletion mutation is described in Example 3.

Deletion mutations of poxR can be introduced into the bacterial chromosome using well known recombinant DNA techniques. For example, the poxR gene can be first cloned onto a suicide vector. The replication of the suicide vector is dependent on a complementing gene on the chromosome. When the suicide vector is transferred to a strain lacking the complementing gene, the only means of maintaining the suicide vector is by recombination integrating the suicide vector into the host chromosome. The presence of the poxR gene on the suicide vector results in homologous recombination of the suicide vector into the corresponding gene on the chromosome. This integration will result in a deletion in the gene of chromosomal poxR gene if the wild-type poxR gene on the suicide vector has been altered by deletion of internal regions of the gene prior to integration. This can be accomplished by either restriction enzyme digestion or inverse PCR amplification. The vector-borne poxR gene is thus inactivated while leaving sufficient flanking DNA to allow recombination into the chromosome. The defined deletion produced in the suicide vector can be designed to provide a convenient restriction enzyme cloning site allowing the insertion of any foreign gene, such as a gene encoding an antigen. After the initial single recombination event integrating the suicide vector into the chromosome, a second recombinational event can be selected for by selection against, for example, a tetracycline element on the suicide vector on media containing fusaric acid (Bochner et al., J. Bactetiol. 143:926 (1980)). Alternative mobilizable suicide vectors are also available utilizing sucrose counter selection for the introduction of defined deletions into Salmonella and other gram negative bacteria (Kaniga et al., Gene 109:137-141 (1991)). This results in the replacement of the wild-type allele with the deleted gene containing the desired insert. These methods have been used to produce defined deletions and insertion of foreign genes into the chromosome of Salmonella strains (Chatfield et al., Vaccine 10:53-60 (1992)). A mutation in the poxR gene can also be generated by transformation using linear DNA molecules carrying a selectable marker inserted in poxR.

It is preferred that the poxR mutation be made by genetic manipulation. As used herein, genetic manipulation refers to a purposeful manipulation of the genome of a bacterial cell directed to altering a specific gene. This can be accomplished, for example, by specifically directing or targeting mutagenesis to a specific gene, or by creating a pool of random mutants and specifically selecting or screening for those in which the poxR gene is mutated. It is intended that genetic manipulation does not encompass genetic changes that occurred naturally, that is, which did not arise through purposeful human intervention or action directed to altering a specific gene. Thus, as used herein, bacterial cells in which the poxR gene has been mutated by genetic manipulation do not include those cells in which the mutation occurred in nature by natural processes.

Virulence of the disclosed bacterial cells can be assessed by, for example, using the chick model described in Example 6, or the mouse model described in Examples 7 and 8. As used herein, attenuated virulence refers to a reduction in virulence of bacteria relative to a reference bacteria of the same type. It is preferred that the reference bacteria is a wild-type bacteria. Most preferably, the reference bacteria is the parent strain from which a poxR mutant was generated. Avirulent does not mean that a bacterial cell of that genus or species can not ever function as a pathogen, but that the particular bacterial cell being used is avirulent with respect to the particular animal being treated. The bacterial cell may belong to a genus or even a species that is normally pathogenic but must belong to a strain that is avirulent. By pathogenic is meant capable of causing disease or impairing normal physiological functioning. Avirulent strains are incapable of inducing a full suite of symptoms of the disease that is normally associated with its virulent pathogenic counterpart.

D. Method of Inducing an Immune Response in an Aninmal

The disclosed bacterial cells having attenuated virulence are preferably used to induce an immune response in an animal. As used herein, an immune response refers to the production of antibodies which are immunoreactive to bacterial cells used to induce the response, or to one or more antigens, or nucleic acid encoding an antigen, which are delivered by the bacterial cells. The antibody so produced may belong to any of the immunological classes, such as immunoglobulins A, D, E, G or M. Of particular interest is the production of immunoglobulin A (IgA) since this is the principle immunoglobulin produced by the secretory system of warm-blooded animals. The disclosed bacterial cells are likely to produce a broad range of other immune responses in addition to such IgA formation, for example, cellular and humoral immunity.

The immune response induced is preferably, but need not be, immunoprotective. As used herein, an immunoprotective immune response is an immune response which reduces the growth, infectivity, pathenogeneity, or viability of an infectious agent in an animal. Most preferred is an immunoprotective immune response which prevents growth, infectivity, pathenogeneity, or viability of an infectious agent in an animal.

The disclosed bacterial cells having a poxR mutation can be used to induce an immune response to related bacterial cells (since the disclosed bacterial cells will present their native antigens to a host animal when administered), or, preferably, the disclosed cells can be used as an antigen delivery system. As used herein, the terms antigen delivery system and antigen delivery bacteria refer to bacterial cells that produce an antigen or that harbor a vector encoding an antigen. In one preferred embodiment of an antigen delivery system using the disclosed bacterial cells, pathogenic bacterial cells that attach to, invade and persist in the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) or bronchial-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT), and that have a poxR mutation are used as a carrier of a gene product which is used for stimulating immune responses against a pathogen or allergen.

Salmonella having a poxR mutation can be used to protect animals and humans against Salmonella infection. To be useful, such strains need not express any foreign antigen. Salmonella having a poxR mutation and expressing protective antigens from bacterial, viral, mycotic and parasitic pathogens that are efficacious in inducing immunities to protect against infections by these pathogens are preferred for inducing an immune response. Salmonella having a poxR mutation as well as containing other mutations which reduce virulence or which are otherwise of reduced virulence are also preferred.

Shigella or an enteroinvasive E. coli having a poxR mutation can be useful in antigen delivery systems since invasion into colonic mucosa could stimulate lymphoid tissues adjacent to the colon, so as to stimulate a strong mucosal immune response in the reproductive tract. Rectal immunization can be effective because of anatomical features such as the proximity of lymph nodes and lymphatics to the colon.

Antigens. Live bacteria having a poxR mutation can be used to deliver any product that can be expressed in the bacteria. Preferred expression products for this purpose are antigens. For example, antigens can be from bacterial, viral, mycotic and parasitic pathogens, to protect against bacterial, viral, mycotic, and parasitic infections, respectively; gametes, provided they are gamete specific, to block fertilization; and tumor antigens, to halt cancers. It is specifically contemplated that antigens from organisms newly identified or newly associated with a disease or pathogenic condition, or new or emerging pathogens of animals or humans, including those now known or identified in the future, can be used with the disclosed bacterial cells and methods. Antigens for use in the disclosed bacterial cells are not limited to those from pathogenic organisms. The selection and recombinant expression of antigens has been previously described by Schödel (1992) and Curtiss (1990). It is preferred that a gene for expression in the disclosed bacterial cells be operably linked to a promoter of any gene of the type III secretion system, preferably a promoter of a sip (ssp) gene, a yop gene, a ipa gene, or a hrp gene. It is also preferred that an expression product for the disclosed bacterial cells be expressed as a fusion to a Sip (Ssp) protein, a Yop protein, a Ipa protein, or a Hrp protein. Such a fusion is preferably expressed using the natural promoter with which the protein is expressed. Immunogenicity of the bacterial cells can be augmented and/or modulated by constructing strains that also express genes for cytokines, adjuvants, and other immunomodulators.

Some examples are microorganisms useful as a source for antigen are listed below. These include antigens for the control of plague caused by Yersinia pestis and other Yersinia species such as Y. pseudotuberculosis and Y. enterocolitica, of gonorrhea caused by Neisseria gonorrhoea, of syphilis caused by Treponema pallidum, and of venereal diseases as well as eye infections caused by Chlamydia trachomatis. Species of Streptococcus from both group A and group B, such as those species that cause sore throat or heart diseases, Neisseria meningitidis, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and other Mycoplasma species, Hemophilus influenza, Bordetella pertussis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium leprae, Bordetella species, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus equi, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Brucella abortus, Pasteurella hemolytica and P. multocida, Vibrio cholera, Shigella species, Borrellia species, Bartonella species, Heliobacter pylori, Campylobacter species, Pseudomonas species, Moraxella species, Brucella species, Francisella species, Aeromonas species, Actinobacillus species, Clostridium species, Rickettsia species, Bacillus species, Coxiella species, Ehrlichia species, Listeria species, and Legionella pneumophila are additional examples of bacteria from which antigen genes could be obtained. Viral antigens can also be used with the disclosed bacterial cells. Viral antigens can also be used, including antigens from either DNA or RNA viruses, for example from the classes Papovavirus, Adenovirus, Herpesvirus, Poxvirus, Parvovirus, Reovirus, Picornavirus, Myxovirus, Paramyxovirus, or Retrovirus. Antigens of pathogenic fungi, protozoa and parasites can also be used.

The antigen can also be an allergen of the host such as antigens from pollen and animal dander. Such an antigen can be used in the disclosed bacterial cells in an exposure regimen designed to specifically desensitize an allergic host.

Recombinant Salmonella encoding foreign antigens are capable of stimulating strong mucosal, systemic and cellular immune responses against the foreign antigens and thus against the pathogen that is the source of the foreign antigen. It is not necessary that the antigen gene be a complete gene as present in the parent organism, which was capable of producing or regulating the production of a macromolecule, for example, a functioning polypeptide. It is only necessary that the gene be capable of serving as the template used as a guide in the production of an antigenic product. The product may be one that was not found in that exact form in the parent organism. For example, a functional gene coding for a polypeptide antigen comprising 100 amino acid residues may be transferred in part into a carrier bacteria so that a peptide comprising only 75, or even 10, amino acid residues is produced by the cellular mechanism of the host cell. Alternatively, if the amino acid sequence of a particular antigen or fragment thereof is known, it is possible to chemically synthesize the DNA fragment or analog thereof by means of automated gene synthesizers or the like and introduce said DNA sequence into the appropriate expression vector. At the other end of the spectrum is a long section of DNA coding for several gene products, one or all of which can be antigenic. Thus a gene as defined here is any unit of heredity capable of producing an antigen. The gene may be of chromosomal, plasmid, or viral origin.

Multiple antigens can also be expressed by a Salmonella strain having a poxR mutation. In addition, antigens, or even parts of antigens, that constitute a B cell epitope or define a region of an antigen to which an immune response is desired, can be expressed as a fusion to a carrier protein that contains a strong promiscuous T cell epitope and/or serves as an adjuvant and/or facilitates presentation of the antigen to enhance, in all cases, the immune response to the antigen or its component part. This can easily be accomplished by genetically engineering DNA sequences to specify such fusions for expression by the disclosed bacterial cells. Fusion to tenus toxin fragment C, CT-B, LT-B and hepatitis virus B core are particularly useful for these purposes, although other epitope presentation systems are well known in the art.

In order for the disclosed bacteria to be most effective in immunizing an individual, it is preferred that the antigenic material be released in such a way that the immune system of the vaccinated animal can come into play. Therefore the poxR mutant bacteria must be introduced into the animal. In order to stimulate a preferred response of the GALT or BALT cells as discussed previously, introduction of the bacteria or gene product directly into the gut or bronchus is preferred, such as by oral administration, intranasal administration, gastric intubation or in the form of aerosols, although other methods of administering the antigen delivery bacteria, such as intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous injection or intramammary, intrapenial, intrarectal, or vaginal administration, is possible.

Antigen Delivery Compositions. A preferred use of the disclosed bacteria is as vaccines for stimulating an immune response to the delivered antigens. Oral immunization in a suitable animal host with live recombinant Salmonella having a poxR mutation leads to colonization of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) or Peyer's patches, which leads to the induction of a generalized mucosal immune response to both Salmonella antigens and any foreign antigens synthesized by the recombinant Salmonella (Curtiss et al., Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 251:33-47 (1989)). Further penetration of the bacteria into the mesenteric lymph nodes, liver and spleen augments the induction of systemic and cellular immune responses directed against Salmonella antigens and the foreign antigens made by the recombinant Salmonella (Doggett and Curtiss (1992)). Thus the use of recombinant Salmonella for oral immunization stimulates all three branches of the immune system, particularly important when immunizing against infectious disease agents which colonize on and/or invade through mucosal surfaces.

By vaccine is meant an agent used to stimulate the immune system of a living organism so that an immune response occurs. Preferably, the vaccine is sufficient to stimulate the immune system of a living organism so that protection against future harm is provided. Such protection is referred to herein as immunoprotection. Immunization refers to the process of inducing a continuing high level of antibody and/or cellular immune response in which T-lymphocytes can either kill the pathogen and/or activate other cells (for example, phagocytes) to do so in an organism, which is directed against a pathogen or antigen to which the organism has been previously exposed. Although the phrase “immune system” can encompass responses of unicellular organisms to the presence of foreign bodies, as used herein the phrase is restricted to the anatomical features and mechanisms by which a multi-cellular organism responds to an antigenic material which invades the cells of the organism or the extra-cellular fluid of the organism. The antibody so produced may belong to any of the immunological classes, such as immunoglobulins A, D, E, G or M. Of particular interest are recombinant poxR mutant bacteria which stimulate production of immunoglobulin A (IgA) since this is the principle immunoglobulin produced by the secretory system of warm-blooded animals, although the disclosed bacteria for use as vaccines are not limited to those which stimulate IgA production. For example, bacterial vaccines of the nature described herein are likely to produce a broad range of other immune responses in addition to IgA formation, for example, cellular and humoral immunity. Immune responses to antigens are well studied and widely reported. A survey of immunology is given in Barrett, Textbook of Immunology, Fourth Edition, (C.V. Mosby Co., St. Louis, Mo., 1983), Sites et al., Basic and Clinical Immunology (Lange Medical Books, Los Altos, Calif., 1994), and Orga et al., Handbook of Mucosal Immunology (Academic Press, San Diego, Calif., 1994). Mucosal immunity is also described by McGhee and Mestecky, The Secretory Immune System, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., Volume 409 (1983).

An individual treated with a vaccine comprising the disclosed bacterial cells is defined herein as including all vertebrates, for example, mammals, including domestic animals and humans, various species of birds, including domestic birds, particularly those of agricultural importance. Preferably, the individual is a warm-blooded animal.

The dosages of the disclosed bacterial cells required to elicit an immune response will vary with the antigenicity of the cloned recombinant expression product and need only be a dosage sufficient to induce an immune response typical of existing vaccines. Routine experimentation will easily establish the required dosage. Typical initial dosages of bacterial vaccine for oral administration could be 1×10⁷ to 1×10¹¹ CFU depending upon the size and age of the individual to be immunized. Administering multiple dosages can also be used as needed to provide the desired level of protective immunity. The pharmaceutical carrier in which the bacterial vaccine is suspended can be any solvent or solid material for encapsulation that is non-toxic to the inoculated animal and compatible with the carrier organism or antigenic gene product. Suitable pharmaceutical carriers include liquid carriers, such as normal saline and other non-toxic salts at or near physiological concentrations, and solid carriers not used for humans, such as talc or sucrose, or animal feed. Adjuvants may be added to enhance the antigenicity if desired. When used for administering via the bronchial tubes, the bacterial vaccine is preferably presented in the form of an aerosol.

Immunization with a pathogen-derived gene product can also be used in conjunction with prior immunization with a derivative of a pathogenic bacteria which has a poxR mutation and which acts as a carrier to express the pathogen-derived gene product. Such parenteral immunization can serve as a booster to enhance expression of the secretory immune response, once the secretory immune system has been primed to that pathogen-derived gene product, by immunization with the recombinant bacteria expressing the pathogen-derived gene product in order to stimulate the lymphoid cells of the GALT or BALT. The enhanced response is known as a secondary, booster, or anamnestic response and results in prolonged immune protection of the host. Booster immunizations may be repeated numerous times with beneficial results.

Although it is preferred that the disclosed bacterial cells adapted for antigen delivery be administered by routes that stimulate a mucosal immune response, namely oral, intranasal, intravaginal, and interrectal, these bacterial cells can also be delivered intramuscularly, intravenously, and in other parenteral routes. Administration of bacterial cells can also be combined with parenteral administration of purified antigenic components.

Genetic Immnunization. The disclosed poxR mutant bacterial cells can also be used to deliver DNA in vivo, and thereby induce an immune response. Delivery of DNA for inducing an immune response is referred to as genetic immunization. For this purpose, it is preferred that such DNA encode an antigen. Preferably, the DNA is in the form of a transfer vector. A bacterial cell having a poxR mutation can harbor a vector for transfer to, and expression in, a cell in an animal or human into which the bacterial cell is placed. As used herein, a transfer vector is an expression vector which can be transferred from a bacterial cell having a poxR mutation into a cell, and which directs the expression of a gene encoded by the transfer vector. It is intended that the transfer vector can contain any gene for expression, including genes encoding antigens, immunomodulators, enzymes, and expression products which regulate gene expression or cellular activity in the recipient cell.

Preferred recipients for transfer vectors are cells of animal or human hosts. For this purpose, bacterial cells having a poxR mutation and a transfer vector can be administered to an animal host. It is preferred that the bacterial cells invade host cells in order to deliver the transfer vector. For expression of genes on the transfer vector in recipient cells, it is preferred that the genes be operatively linked to expression control sequences operable in the recipient cell. For example, where the recipient cell is an animal or human cell, it is preferred that the genes be operatively linked to a promoter functional in the animal or human.

Transfer vectors may also contain replication sequences operable in the recipient cell. This would allow replication of the transfer vector, resulting in increased or longer expression of genes present on the transfer vector. Transfer vectors are especially useful for expression of antigens and other proteins that need to be glycosylated or post-translationally modified in a eukaryotic cell. In this way a bacterial cell having a poxR mutation can be used for delivery of a protein requiring eukaryotic processing by expressing the protein from a transfer vector.

An example of a vector suitable for use as a transfer vector in a bacterial cell having a poxR mutation is described by Sizemore et al., Science270:299-302 (1995). Sizemore et al. used a construct expressing β-galactosidase under the control of the immediate early cytomegalovirus promoter and observed the expression of (β-galactosidase in eukaryotic cells following lysis of a Δasd Shigella strain due to DAPless death.

A preferred use for transfer vectors is in a live bacterial antigen delivery system for stimulation of an immune response in a host animal. For this purpose it is preferred that the bacteria is Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia, or invasive Escherichia that would invade and then lyse to liberate a transfer vector designed for expression in cells of the animal or human host. This can be useful in stimulating an immune response for viruses, parasites or against gamete antigens where the antigens are normally glycosylated or post-translationally modified in some way that can only be accomplished when the antigen product is synthesized within the eukaryotic cell.

The efficiency of transfer of a transfer vector or other DNA for genetic immunization can be improved by including an endA mutation, mutations in recBC (with or without sbc suppressor mutations), and/or mutations in other nuclease genes. Such mutations can reduce degradation of the transfer vector or other DNA upon lysis of the bacterial cell. It is also possible to influence the host cell type and the mucosal surface to which the bacterial cell containing the transfer vector or other DNA would adhere to and invade. This can be achieved by blocking or turning on the expression of specific adhesins and/or invasins.

Many vectors are known for genetic immunization or introduction into cells in an animal or human. Such vectors can be used as transfer vectors in bacterial cells having a poxR mutation. In this case, the bacterial cell having a poxR mutation provides a useful means for introducing such vectors into cells. Preferred promoters for expression of genes on transfer vectors are adenovirus, herpes virus and cytomegalovirus promoters. Expression of the gene can also be increased by placing a bacterial promoter upstream of the eukaryotic promoter, so that the bacterial strain would already express some of the expression product. This expression product would be liberated upon lysis of the bacterial cell.

EXAMPLES

The bacterial strains and plasmids used or made in the following examples and their sources are listed in Table 1. Strains were grown in L broth or on L agar (Lennox, Virology 1:190-206 (1955)) or Antibiotic No. 2 (Difco, Detroit, Mich.). When required, antibiotics were added to the growth medium at the following concentration: Kanamycin, 50 μg/ml; ampicillin, 100 μg/ml; streptomycin, 100 μg/ml; tetracycline, 12.5 μg/ml.

TABLE 1 Bacterial strains. Strain Relevant genotype Reference/Source S. typhimurium SMS401 poxA401::Tn10 Van Dyk et al. (1987) SB164 invF::xylE Kaniga et al., Mol. Microbiol. 13(4):555-568 (1994) SB164N invF::xylE poxR401::Tn10 Example 4 SB227 sipC::xylE Kaniga et al., J. Bacteriol. 177(24):7078-7085 (1995) SB227N sipC::xylE poxR401::Tn10 Example 4 _(X)3761 wild-type UK-1 Curtiss, laboratory collection MGN-762s ΔphoPQ23 S. Tinge (unpublished) MGN-791s poxR401::Tn10 Example 1 MGN-816s ΔpoxR401 Example 1 MGN-824s ΔphoPQ23 Δasd729::xylE Example 4 MGN-939s ΔpoxR401 (pMEG-250) Example 1 MGN-1036s ΔpoxR270 Example 3 MGN-1055s ΔpoxR270 Δasd729::xylE Example 4 E. coli MGN-617 thi thr leu tonA lacY supE λpir K. Roland recA::RP4-2-Tc::Mu (KmR) Δasd1 (unpublished) CC118λpir araD139 Δ (ara-leu)7697 ΔlacX74 de Lorenzo et al., galK ΔphoA20 galE recA1 rpsE J. Bacteriol. argE (Am) rpoB thi λpir 172(11):6568-6572 (1991)

Example 1

Cloning of the poxR Gene by Genetic Complementation

Recombinant DNA techniques were performed according to standard procedures (Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989)). Transformation of plasmid DNA into E. coli and Salmonella strains by electroporation was carried out as described by O'Callaghan and Charbit (Mol. Gen. Genet. 223:157-160 (1990)) using an E. coli Gene Pulser apparatus (Bio-Rad Laboratories). poxR401::Tn 10 insertion was moved into S. typhimurium using P22HTint transduction as previously described (Galán et al., J. Bacteriol. 17:4338-4349 (1992)). poxA401::Tn10 allele (now referred to as poxR401::Tn10) was introduced into wild-type S. typhimutium UK-1 strain x3761 by P22 transduction using a P22 lysate grown on S. typhimurium SMS401, to generate strain MGN-791s. Bacteriophage P22HTint was used for the transductions (Schmeiger, Mol. Gen. Genet. 119:74-88 (1972)). Although poxR mutants grow slower than the wild-type parent (Chang and Cronan (1982)), this differential growth rate does not appear to be a strong phenotype. Unlike the LT2 derivative strains SMS401 which exhibits a hypersensitivity to α-ketobutyrate (AKB) (Van Dyk and LaRossa, J. Bacteriol. 165(2):386-392 (1986); Van Dyk et al. (1987)), it was found that S. typhimutrium UK-1 poxR401::Tn10 show a marginal sensitivity to AKB. Therefore, a range of bacteriological media was screened for substantial difference in growth rates between poxR mutants and isogenic wild-type. It was found that all poxR mutant derivatives of S. typhimurium produced microcolonies on Antibiotic No. 2 agar (AB2), as compared to LB agar media. A fusaric acid resistant derivative of MGN-791s was selected following Tn10 deletion to generate MGN-816s. Under the same conditions, the parental strain x3761 produced normal size colonies on both AB2 and LB agar plate. The poxR gene was then cloned by virtue of its ability to restore normal growth to a poxR defective strain on AB2 media.

A genomic library of wild-type S. typhimurium UK-1 strain x3761 in a pUC19-derived vector pNEB193 was used (obtained from Steve Tinge). This library was introduced into S. typhimurium strain MGN-816s by electroporation and selection on AB2 plate containing ampicillin. Among approximately 5,000 ampicillin-resistant microcolonies, one transformant, MGN-939s, exhibited a large colony morphology indicating that strain MGN-939s had acquired a DNA fragment capable of fully complementing the growth defect of the poxR mutant. The plasmid, designated pMEG-250 was purified and introduced into E. coli CC118 λpir. A partial restriction map of the 2 kilobase (kb) DNA insert in pMEG-250 was established (FIG. 4). To ensure that the complementation was solely due to cloned poxR and not to an unknown secondary mutation acquired during the selection, pMEG-250 was reintroduced into MGN-816s. All transformants were complemented to the large colony phenotype on AB2. This result strongly suggests that the 2 kb DNA fragment of UK-1 in pMEG-250 encodes an active poxR protein. Alternatively, the DNA fragment could also encode a suppressor of poxR, as the complementing pMEG-250 was a high copy plasmid. To address that possibility, a Southern blot analysis was performed on Cla I digested genomic DNA from wild-type x3761 and the transposon Tn10 insertion in poxR strain MGN-791s using labelled 2 kb insert from pMEG-250 as the probe. The probe hybridized to a single Cla I fragment in wild-type and to two Cla I fragments in poxR401::Tn10. The results confirmed that the 2 kb DNA fragment of pMEG 250 encodes the poxR gene.

The poxR-encoding fragment was re-cloned in the opposite orientation in relation to the plasmid encoded lac promoter, generating pMEG-251 and pMEG-273 (FIG. 4). Both pMEG 251 and pMEG 273 were able to complement a poxR401::Tn10 polar mutation. This indicates that the 2 kb DNA fragment carries a promoter sequence necessary for the expression of poxR. In the absence of antibiotic selection, the high copy pMEG-251 and pMEG-273 were unstable and were lost at a high frequency. Therefore, the poxR gene was established into a low copy pLG339 vector (a pSC101 derivative) to give pMEG-274 (FIG. 4). This plasmid was found to be stable in S. typhimurium.

Nucleotide sequence of the poxR gene. The 2 kb DNA fragment of plasmid pMEG-250 was sequenced on both strands. Nucleotide sequence determination was performed by ACGT, Inc. using double-stranded DNA as templates, and both strands were sequenced. The nucleotide sequence (FIG. 6; SEQ ID NO:1) was analyzed using the MacVector 5.0 software. Searches for homology in the available databases were performed using the BLAST program at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (Altschul et al., J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410 (1990)). At the nucleotide level, the 2,008 bp fragment showed 81% identity to the min 94 region of E. coli chromosome including yjeA and yjeM, and 61% identity to Haemophilus influenza chromosome including the yjeA and yjbM genes. This is in agreement with the map position of poxR401::Tn10 determined in S. typhimurium. yjeA, yjeM and yjbM were identified during the automated sequencing of the genome of these organisms. Two open reading frames (ORF) were found in the 2,008 bp sequence. The first ORF, preceded by a putative Shine and Dalgarno (SD) sequence, starts at nucleotide 345 and encodes a polypeptide 325 amino acids with a predicted molecular mass of 36.8 kDa. Hydrophobicity analysis using the algorithm of Kyte and Doolittle indicated that poxR does not have a signal sequence or membrane-spanning domain, suggesting that poxR is a cytoplasmic protein. poxR showed 91% identity, 96% similarity to E. coli GenX (YjeA), a lysyl-tRNA synthatase homologue, and 65% identity, 79% similarity to GenX (YjeA) of H. influenza. YjeA has not been characterized at the molecular level, and no function has been ascribed to this protein in either organism. The second ORF, preceded by a putative SD sequence, starts at nucleotide 1548 and was truncated at nucleotide 2,008. This ORF was found to be homologous to E. coli YjeM (88% identity and 96% similarity). No function has been assigned to this protein in E. coli. Although the transposon Tn10 insertion has not been mapped, it is reasonable to assume, based upon the genetic complementation data, that the insertion took place in the poxR coding region, since the second ORF is truncated. The complementation of poxR401::Tn10 mutation suggests that poxR and the downstream ORF do not form an operon.

Example 2

Expression of poxR in a Bacteriophage T7 RNA Polymerase Expression System

The 2 kb DNA fragment capable of complementing the poxR mutation was cloned in both orientations under the control of bacteriophage T7 promoter in the vector pKSII (Stratagene, LaJolla, Calif.), to generate pMEG-251 and pMEG-273 (see FIG. 4). Expression and [³⁵S]-methionine labelling of plasmid-encoded polypeptides in a bacteriophage T7 expression system was carried out as described by Tabor and Richardson, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82:1074-1078 (1985) using E. coli BL21 (DE3) as host for the expression vectors (Studier and Moffat, J. Mol. Biol. 189:113-130 (1986)). Cell lysates of E. coli BL21 (DE3) carrying pMEG-251 showed a polypeptide with a molecular mass of about 35 kDa which was absent from lysates of cells carrying either pMEG-273 or the vector alone. The size of the expressed polypeptide is in complete agreement with the predicted size of poxR.

Example 3

Construction of poxR Defined Deletion Mutant Strains of S. typhimudum

A defined deletion of poxR was constructed by removing the 1018 bp BstB I-Xho I fragment of pMEG-273, filling in the termini with the large fragment of DNA polymerase I and religating, yielding plasmid pMEG-279. A 1 kb Xho I-Xba I fragment of pMEG-279, carrying the mutated ΔpoxR270 was subsequently recombined into the S. typhimurium UK-1 chromosome by bacterial mating according to the procedure described by Kaniga et al. (1994) with the following modification: 100 μl of fresh overnight culture of the donor E. coli strain MGN-617 (see Table 1) harboring the suicide plasmid pMEG-280 and 100 μl of the recipient S. typhimurium _(x)3761 were mixed in 5 ml of buffered saline gelatin (BSG). The solution was filtered through a 0.45 μm filter, which was then placed on the surface of an L-agar plate containing 100 μg/ml diaminopimelic acid (DAP), and incubated at 37° C. for at least 8 hours. Bacteria bound to the filter were then resuspended in 5 ml of BSG, and several dilutions were plated onto streptomycin selective plates. Single recombinants that had the plasmid integrated into the chromosome were grown in Luria broth (LB) in the absence of antibiotic selection, and several dilutions were plated on 5% sucrose to select for strains that had undergone resolution of the cointegrate by recombination. Double recombinants were tested for streptomycin sensitivity due to the lost of the suicide plasmid, for the poxR phenotype on AB2 plates, and for sensitivity to 1.25 mg/ml of protamine sulfate.

The deletion in poxR resulted in strain MGN-1036s (Table 1), where 270 amino acids of poxR have been deleted. MGN-1036s gave rise to microcolonies on AB2 medium as expected, consistent with the mutation being in the poxR gene. This was confirmed by Southern blot using the 2 kb DNA fragment encoding poxR as a probe. Moreover, the defined ΔpoxR270 was fully complemented by plasmid pMEG-274.

It has been reported that S. typhimurium mutants with reduced virulence also show sensitivity to antimicrobial cationic peptides such as defensin and protamine (Groissman et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:11939-11943 (1992)). MGN-1036s failed to grow in presence of 1.25 mg/ml of protamine sulfate, while the isogenic wild-type exhibited normal growth at that concentration. This phenotype was complementable by pMEG-274. The defined deletion strain MGN-1036s was also found to be attenuated for virulence in mice. MGN-1036s was characterized biochemically using API strips. The results showed no biochemical difference between wild-type and poxR mutants. The growth rate of the defined deletion strain MGN-1036s was identical to that of the previous poxR mutants MGN-791s and MGN-816s. Taken together, the poxR defined mutant showed a phenotype identical to the transposon generated deletion strain and the insertion strain.

Example 4

poxR regulates the Expression of inv and sip Genes of Salmonella Pathogenicity Island I

As described above, poxR mutations have attenuated virulence. Based on this, the possibility that poxR may regulate the expression of genes involved in S. typhimurium entry into eukaryotic cells was investigated. For this purpose, the effect of mutations in poxR on the expression of invF and sipC, two genes located in S. typhimurium pathogenicity island I and required for invasion of epithelial cells (Kaniga et al., Mol. Microbiol. 13(4):555-568 (1994); Kaniga et al. J. Bacteriol. 177(24):7078-7085 (1995)), was examined. Strains SB164 (Kaniga et al. (1994)) and SB227 (Kaniga et al. (1995)) carry chromosomal fusions of invF and sipC, respectively, to a xylE reporter gene. The poxR401::Tn10 mutation was introduced in SB164 and SB227 by P22 transduction to give SB164N and SB227N. Bacteriophage P22HTint was used for the transductions (Schmeiger (1972)).

To test whether the effect of poxR on invF and sipC expression was specific, a chromosomally integrated asd:.xylE fusion was constructed in poxR+ and poxR− genetic background to generate strain MGN-824s and MGN-1055s, respectively (see Table 1). To make the fusions, the 1.7 kb Bgl II fragment of cloning vector pYA292 (Galán et al., Gene 94(1):29-35 (1990)) which encodes the asd gene was subcloned into the Bam HI-Bgl II site of vector pIC20H (Marsh et al., Gene 32:481-485 (1984) to generate pMEG-163. An internal 729 bp Eco RV fragment of the asd coding region was deleted and replaced by a 957 bp Bgl II promoterless xylE reporter from pSB383 (Kaniga et al. (1994)), generating pMEG-222. In pMEG-222, xylE expression is driven by the asd promoter. The Δasd729::xylE fusion was retrieved from pMEG-222 as a Bgl II-Xba I fragment which was then inserted into Bam HI-Xba I sites of the sucrose-based suicide vector pKNG101 (Kaniga et al., Gene 109:137-141 (1991)) to give pMEG-223. The Δasd729::xylE allele was introduced into the chromosome of S. typhimurium strain MGN-762s (poxR⁺) and MGN-1036s (poxR−) by homologous recombination using the universal donor strain MGN-617 as described in Example 3, to produce MGN-824s and MGN-1055s, respectively.

The activity of catechol 2,3 dioxygenase in the different strains was measured as described previously (Kaniga et al. (1994)). The results are presented in FIG. 5. The results show that the poxR mutation specifically upregulates the expression of sipC and invF two- to three-fold, while the expression of asd gene was not affected.

It was then investigated whether the upregulation of invF and sipC genes was correlated with the secretion of the Sip proteins in the supernatant of Salmonella cultures. For this, proteins from cell-free culture supernatant were purified as described by Kaniga et al. (1995). Samples were separated by discontinuous sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). Gels were stained with brilliant blue R-250. Approximately 5-fold more Sip proteins were detected in the culture supernatant of a poxR³¹ strain as compared to the isogenic wild-type. This phenotype was partially complementable by plasmid pMEG-274 carrying a cloned poxR gene. Interestingly, the amount of flagellin was identical in all strains, indicating that the effect of poxR mutation was Sips specific.

Example 5

poxR Gene is Present in other Pathogenic Microorganisms

Bacteria other than Salmonella, H. influenzae and E. coli were examined to determine if poxR was present in the genome of these bacterial species. Genomic DNA was purified from Shigella flexneri, Yersinia enterocolitica, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pasteurella multocida, Borrellia burgdorferi, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae. 5 μg of genomic DNA were subjected to Southern blot analysis using a labelled 1 kb Bst BI-Xho I internal fragment of poxR as a probe (see FIG. 4). Despite the stringent hybridization and washing conditions (50° C.; 1×SSC; 0.1×SDS), a strong signal was detected in S. flexneri, Y. enterocolitica, K. pneumoniae and to a lesser extent, in P. multocida and M. tuberculosis. These data indicate that poxR is present in other organisms in addition to Salmonella, E. coli and H. influenzae.

Example 6

poxR Mutant Derivatives of S. typhimurium UK-1 are Avirulent in Day-old Chicks.

Day-old chicks are very sensitive to S. typhimurium UK-1 (Hassan and Curtiss, Infect. Immun. 62(12):5519-5527 (1994)). The 50% lethal dose (LD₅₀) of wild-type bacteria in day of hatch chicks in 3×10³ cfu. Therefore, infant chicks are excellent models for S. typhimurium infection. It had been previously determined that the mean time to death of day-old chicks infected with 1×108 cfu of wild-type S. typhimurium UK-1 was 3 days. In order to determine whether the poxR mutation has any effect on virulence, five specific pathogen free white Leghorn chicken were inoculated by oral gavage with 1×10⁸ cfu of strain MGN-791s (see Table 1) at day of hatch. Per oral inoculation (p.o.) of day-old chicks with S. typhimurium strains MGN-791s was performed according to Hassan and Curtiss. Under these conditions, all birds survived six days post-infection. To determine whether the survival of birds was due to the inability of the bacteria to disseminate in target organs, the colonization levels in the spleen, liver, bursa and cecum were determined six days post-infection (FIG. 1). The results show that the poxR mutant strain MGN 791s was able to colonize deep tissues. The survival of birds to 10,000 times the LD₅₀ dose is an indication of attenuation of virulence due to poxR mutation.

Example 7

Attenuation of Virulence and Colonization in Mice by poxR Mutants

To confirm the role of poxR mutation in virulence, the 50% lethal dose (LD₅₀) of S. typhimurium strain MGN-816s (see Table 1) was determined in mice. Treatment groups of six week-old female BALB/c mice were inoculated at day 1 either intra peritoneally (i.p.), or orally (p.o.) with the doses indicated in Table 2. Per oral inoculation (p.o.) and intraperitoneal (i.p.) inoculations of 6 week old female BALB/c mice with the different S. typhimurium strains were carried out as previously described (Galán and Curtiss (1989)). A non inoculated control group was included. Mice which survived immunization were challenged 35 days post-immunization by oral inoculation with 7.5×10⁸ cfu of wild-type UK-1 strain _(x)3761. Control mice were challenged by oral inoculation with 1.5×10⁴ cfu of wild type UK-1 strain _(x)3761 (the equivalent of LD₅₀). Three control mice died within 11 days post-challenge. The 2 remaining control mice were moribund and looked scruffy. They were euthanized and scored as dead from infection.

TABLE 2 Survivors Survivors Route of Dose (cfu) of following following immunization bacteria immunization challenge Control — — 0/5 p.o. 2.6 × 10⁷ 5/5 5/5 p.o. 2.6 × 10⁸ 5/5 5/5 p.o. 2.6 × 10⁹  5/5^(a)  4/4^(b) i.p. 2.6 × 10⁴ 5/5 5/5 i.p. 2.6 × 10⁵ 0/5 — ^(a)Eleven mice were immunized and three mice were euthanized on days 3 and 7 to determine the level of colonization in the spleen, mesenteric lymph nodes, and Peyer's patches. ^(b)One mouse in this group died during serum collection on day 28 post-infection.

Three and seven days post-inoculation, three mice were humanely euthanized from the 2.6×10⁹ cfu treatment group, and the colonization levels in the spleen, mesenteric lymph nodes and Peyer's patches were determined (FIG. 2). The results show greater than 10⁴ cfu in both spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes, indicating that poxR mutant derivatives of S. typhimurium UK-1 are capable of colonizing deep tissues in mice following oral inoculation.

Following immunization, mice were monitored daily for death. All mice in the i.p. 2.6×10⁵ cfu group died within 13 days post-infection. However, all mice from other treatment groups survived after 12 days post-inoculation (Table 2). The LD₅₀ of wild-type S. typhimurium UK-1 strain _(x)3761 was approximately 10 cfu for i.p., and 10⁴ cfu for p.o. in six week-old female BALB/c mice. These results indicate that poxR mutants of S. typhimurium are avirulent in both i.p. and p.o. since mice inoculated with poxR mutant survived approximately 1,000 times the i.p. LD₅₀ of wild-type and 100,000 times the p.o. LD₅₀ of wild-type. The attenuation of virulence was not the result of the inability of the strain to colonize deep tissues (see above).

Example 8

Immunogenicity and Protection induced by S. typhimurium poxR Mutants

Six week old female BALB/c mice were immunized with single doses as indicated in Table 2. At day 28 post-immunization, sera were collected by retro orbital eye bleeding from immunized and non-immunized control mice. The humoral immune response of mice to S. typhimurium poxR mutant was measured by ELISA using purified LPS as coating antigen, since the O-antigen is the immunodominant antigen in Salmonella. The humoral response to S. typhimurium poxR mutants was assayed by either ELISA, or Western blot (immunoblot) of whole cell lysates proteins separated by SDS-PAGE, transferred to nitrocellulose, and detected using polyclonal antisera from immunized mice, followed by enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL kit; Amersham, Arlington Heights, Ill.). The results are shown in FIG. 3.

As expected, non-immunized control mice did not raise an immune response to Salmonella. However, mice immunized i.p. and p.o. raised strong IgA, IgM and IgG responses, indicating that poxR mutant derivatives of S. typhimurium induced a strong humoral immune response in mice. The humoral immune response measured in mice treated with 2.6×10⁹ cfu p.o. appeared to be suppressed.

It was then determined whether the immune responses induced by S. typhimurium poxR mutants could protect mice against lethal wild-type challenge. Day 35 post-immunization, both i.p. and p.o. immunized mice were challenged by oral inoculation with 7.5×10⁸ cfu of wild-type S. typhimurium UK-1 strain _(x)3761. The non-immunized control mice were challenged p.o. with 1.5×10⁴ cfu of wild-type, the equivalent of 1.5×LD₅₀, to assess the virulence of the challenge strain. The experiment was terminated 16 days post-challenge and survivors following challenge were scored (Table 2). In the control treatment group, 5 of the 5 mice died by day 15 post-challenge. In immunized treatment groups, all mice survived approximately 10,000 times the LD₅₀ of wild-type challenge after a single immunization regimen. Taken together, these results demonstrate that poxR mutants are attenuated in mice and capable of inducing protective response against wild-type lethal challenge.

Publications cited herein and the material for which they are cited are specifically incorporated by reference.

Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. Such equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the following claims.

3 2007 base pairs nucleic acid double linear DNA NO no CDS 345..1319 /function= “encodes PoxR” CDS 1548..2007 1 GATCGGCTTG AAAGGTTTGC ACGACATTCC TCCAGATTAT TGTAATTTCA CCCTCGCGCA 60 GCCAGATAAA GCCTCTGGGT TCTGCGAAGT ATGAATGCGT TTCCACTGCT CCTTTATGGG 120 TACAACAGTA TAGTCTCAGG GATGTGAGGG AAATTTGACG TGTTCGATTT TTTTAGCGTA 180 TCAGAGGGAT GAATTATCAT TGATTTTGAT TAATTTAATT ACTAAACCAT CTGAAATCAC 240 TTTTTTTACC CTCCAGAAGG CGCCCGATAC GCCTGCGCAA AATTTGTTTC GCCCGCGCGT 300 TGCGAGTAGA CTTCGTGACC TTGTCTTAAA CTGGAGAAAG AATC ATG AGC GAA ACG 356 Met Ser Glu Thr 1 GCA ACC TGG CAG CCG AGC GCG TCC ATC CCC AAT TTA TTA AAA CGT GCG 404 Ala Thr Trp Gln Pro Ser Ala Ser Ile Pro Asn Leu Leu Lys Arg Ala 5 10 15 20 GCG ATT ATG GCG GAA ATC CGT CGT TTC TTT GGC GAT CGT GGA GTG CTT 452 Ala Ile Met Ala Glu Ile Arg Arg Phe Phe Gly Asp Arg Gly Val Leu 25 30 35 GAG GTT GAG ACG CCC TGC ATG AGT CAG GCG ACG GTC ACA GAC ATT CAT 500 Glu Val Glu Thr Pro Cys Met Ser Gln Ala Thr Val Thr Asp Ile His 40 45 50 CTG TTC CCG TTC GAA ACG CGT TTC GTC GGA CCT GGC CAT TCC CAG GGG 548 Leu Phe Pro Phe Glu Thr Arg Phe Val Gly Pro Gly His Ser Gln Gly 55 60 65 ATC AAC CTC TAT TTA ATG ACC AGT CCG GAA TAC CAT ATG AAA CGC CTG 596 Ile Asn Leu Tyr Leu Met Thr Ser Pro Glu Tyr His Met Lys Arg Leu 70 75 80 CTG GAG GCA GGG TGC GGC CCG GTT TTC CAG CTA TGC CGC AGT TTC CGT 644 Leu Glu Ala Gly Cys Gly Pro Val Phe Gln Leu Cys Arg Ser Phe Arg 85 90 95 100 AAT GAA GAG ATG GGA CGA CAT CAT AAT CCG GAA TTC ACT ATG CTG GAG 692 Asn Glu Glu Met Gly Arg His His Asn Pro Glu Phe Thr Met Leu Glu 105 110 115 TGG TAT CGC CCG CAT TAC GAT ATG TAC CGC CTG ATG AAT GAA GTG GAT 740 Trp Tyr Arg Pro His Tyr Asp Met Tyr Arg Leu Met Asn Glu Val Asp 120 125 130 GAT TTG CTT CAG CAA GTG CTG GAT TGT CAA CCT GCG GAA AGT CTC TCC 788 Asp Leu Leu Gln Gln Val Leu Asp Cys Gln Pro Ala Glu Ser Leu Ser 135 140 145 TAT CAA CAG GCG TTT CAG CGC CAT CTG GGG ATT GAC CCG TTA TCA GCA 836 Tyr Gln Gln Ala Phe Gln Arg His Leu Gly Ile Asp Pro Leu Ser Ala 150 155 160 GAT AAA ACG CAA CTG CGT GAG GCG GCG GCA AAG CTT GAT TTA AGC AAT 884 Asp Lys Thr Gln Leu Arg Glu Ala Ala Ala Lys Leu Asp Leu Ser Asn 165 170 175 180 ATC GCC GAT ACG GAA GAA GAC CGT GAT ACG TTG CTG CAA CTG TTG TTC 932 Ile Ala Asp Thr Glu Glu Asp Arg Asp Thr Leu Leu Gln Leu Leu Phe 185 190 195 ACG ATG GGG GTT GAG CCG CAT ATA GGT AAA GAA AAG CCG ACC TTT ATT 980 Thr Met Gly Val Glu Pro His Ile Gly Lys Glu Lys Pro Thr Phe Ile 200 205 210 TAT CAC TTT CCG GCA AGT CAG GCA TCG CTG GCA CAA ATC AGT ACC GAG 1028 Tyr His Phe Pro Ala Ser Gln Ala Ser Leu Ala Gln Ile Ser Thr Glu 215 220 225 GAT CAT CGC GTC GCC GAG CGC TTT GAG GTG TAC TAC AAA GGT ATT GAG 1076 Asp His Arg Val Ala Glu Arg Phe Glu Val Tyr Tyr Lys Gly Ile Glu 230 235 240 CTG GCG AAT GGT TTC CAC GAA CTG ACG GAC GCA CGT GAG CAA CAA CAG 1124 Leu Ala Asn Gly Phe His Glu Leu Thr Asp Ala Arg Glu Gln Gln Gln 245 250 255 260 CGC TTT GAA CAG GAC AAT CGT AAG CGC GCC GCT CGC GGT CTG GCG CAG 1172 Arg Phe Glu Gln Asp Asn Arg Lys Arg Ala Ala Arg Gly Leu Ala Gln 265 270 275 CAG CCG ATG GAC CAA AAT CTA CTG GAT GCG CTG GCC GCC GGT CTA CCG 1220 Gln Pro Met Asp Gln Asn Leu Leu Asp Ala Leu Ala Ala Gly Leu Pro 280 285 290 GAT TGT TCC GGC GTG GCG CTG GGT GTT GAT CGT CTG GTG ATG CTG GCG 1268 Asp Cys Ser Gly Val Ala Leu Gly Val Asp Arg Leu Val Met Leu Ala 295 300 305 CTG GGA GCA GAA AGC CTG GCG GAC GTG ATT GCT TTT ACG GTC GAT CGG 1316 Leu Gly Ala Glu Ser Leu Ala Asp Val Ile Ala Phe Thr Val Asp Arg 310 315 320 GCG TAA ATCTGAAATT CACTCTTTCG CGAGAGAAAA TGGCGCAATA AGCGCCATTT 1372 Ala 325 TGTAGCATAT TTTTTCAATT ATCCTCTGTT TGGCACAACA TAAGGCTGGA ACTTTGATGC 1432 CATTTAGGTA TCAATCCTGT GTTGATTTTT TTATCGCTGA CCTTCGTAAA AAAGAAGGCG 1492 GCGTCAATCG GTGAGCGGCG TCTGGCAAAC GCGCTCGAGC GTAAGGGATG GTTGA ATG 1550 Met 1 ACC CAC ACG ATA AAA AAG ATG AGC CTT ATT GGG CTT ATC CTG ATG ATT 1598 Thr His Thr Ile Lys Lys Met Ser Leu Ile Gly Leu Ile Leu Met Ile 5 10 15 TTT ACT TCT GTT TTT GGT TTT GCG AAT AGC CCG TCG GCG TTT TAT TTA 1646 Phe Thr Ser Val Phe Gly Phe Ala Asn Ser Pro Ser Ala Phe Tyr Leu 20 25 30 ATG GGG TAT AGC GCA ATC CCA TGG TAT ATA TTT TCT GCC TTG CTG TTT 1694 Met Gly Tyr Ser Ala Ile Pro Trp Tyr Ile Phe Ser Ala Leu Leu Phe 35 40 45 TTT ATT CCA TTC GCC TTA ATG ATG GCT GAA ATG GGT TCC GCT TAT CCC 1742 Phe Ile Pro Phe Ala Leu Met Met Ala Glu Met Gly Ser Ala Tyr Pro 50 55 60 65 AAA GAA GAG GGC GGG ATC TAT TCG TGG ATG AAT AAT AGC GTG GGG CCA 1790 Lys Glu Glu Gly Gly Ile Tyr Ser Trp Met Asn Asn Ser Val Gly Pro 70 75 80 CGT TAC GCG TTT ATT GGC ACG TTT ATG TGG TTT TCA TCG TAT GTC ATA 1838 Arg Tyr Ala Phe Ile Gly Thr Phe Met Trp Phe Ser Ser Tyr Val Ile 85 90 95 TGG ATG GTA AGT ACG GCG GCA AAA ATT TGG GTA CCG TTT TCT ACA TTT 1886 Trp Met Val Ser Thr Ala Ala Lys Ile Trp Val Pro Phe Ser Thr Phe 100 105 110 GTT TTT GGC CCC GAT ATG ACG CAG CAC TGG CGT ATT GCA GGG CTT GAG 1934 Val Phe Gly Pro Asp Met Thr Gln His Trp Arg Ile Ala Gly Leu Glu 115 120 125 CCT ACG CAG GTT GTC GGG CTG CTC GCC GTC GGC TGG ATG AAT CTG GTG 1982 Pro Thr Gln Val Val Gly Leu Leu Ala Val Gly Trp Met Asn Leu Val 130 135 140 145 ACG TGT GTC GCC GCC AGA GGG ATC C 2007 Thr Cys Val Ala Ala Arg Gly Ile 150 325 amino acids amino acid linear protein 2 Met Ser Glu Thr Ala Thr Trp Gln Pro Ser Ala Ser Ile Pro Asn Leu 1 5 10 15 Leu Lys Arg Ala Ala Ile Met Ala Glu Ile Arg Arg Phe Phe Gly Asp 20 25 30 Arg Gly Val Leu Glu Val Glu Thr Pro Cys Met Ser Gln Ala Thr Val 35 40 45 Thr Asp Ile His Leu Phe Pro Phe Glu Thr Arg Phe Val Gly Pro Gly 50 55 60 His Ser Gln Gly Ile Asn Leu Tyr Leu Met Thr Ser Pro Glu Tyr His 65 70 75 80 Met Lys Arg Leu Leu Glu Ala Gly Cys Gly Pro Val Phe Gln Leu Cys 85 90 95 Arg Ser Phe Arg Asn Glu Glu Met Gly Arg His His Asn Pro Glu Phe 100 105 110 Thr Met Leu Glu Trp Tyr Arg Pro His Tyr Asp Met Tyr Arg Leu Met 115 120 125 Asn Glu Val Asp Asp Leu Leu Gln Gln Val Leu Asp Cys Gln Pro Ala 130 135 140 Glu Ser Leu Ser Tyr Gln Gln Ala Phe Gln Arg His Leu Gly Ile Asp 145 150 155 160 Pro Leu Ser Ala Asp Lys Thr Gln Leu Arg Glu Ala Ala Ala Lys Leu 165 170 175 Asp Leu Ser Asn Ile Ala Asp Thr Glu Glu Asp Arg Asp Thr Leu Leu 180 185 190 Gln Leu Leu Phe Thr Met Gly Val Glu Pro His Ile Gly Lys Glu Lys 195 200 205 Pro Thr Phe Ile Tyr His Phe Pro Ala Ser Gln Ala Ser Leu Ala Gln 210 215 220 Ile Ser Thr Glu Asp His Arg Val Ala Glu Arg Phe Glu Val Tyr Tyr 225 230 235 240 Lys Gly Ile Glu Leu Ala Asn Gly Phe His Glu Leu Thr Asp Ala Arg 245 250 255 Glu Gln Gln Gln Arg Phe Glu Gln Asp Asn Arg Lys Arg Ala Ala Arg 260 265 270 Gly Leu Ala Gln Gln Pro Met Asp Gln Asn Leu Leu Asp Ala Leu Ala 275 280 285 Ala Gly Leu Pro Asp Cys Ser Gly Val Ala Leu Gly Val Asp Arg Leu 290 295 300 Val Met Leu Ala Leu Gly Ala Glu Ser Leu Ala Asp Val Ile Ala Phe 305 310 315 320 Thr Val Asp Arg Ala 325 153 amino acids amino acid linear protein 3 Met Thr His Thr Ile Lys Lys Met Ser Leu Ile Gly Leu Ile Leu Met 1 5 10 15 Ile Phe Thr Ser Val Phe Gly Phe Ala Asn Ser Pro Ser Ala Phe Tyr 20 25 30 Leu Met Gly Tyr Ser Ala Ile Pro Trp Tyr Ile Phe Ser Ala Leu Leu 35 40 45 Phe Phe Ile Pro Phe Ala Leu Met Met Ala Glu Met Gly Ser Ala Tyr 50 55 60 Pro Lys Glu Glu Gly Gly Ile Tyr Ser Trp Met Asn Asn Ser Val Gly 65 70 75 80 Pro Arg Tyr Ala Phe Ile Gly Thr Phe Met Trp Phe Ser Ser Tyr Val 85 90 95 Ile Trp Met Val Ser Thr Ala Ala Lys Ile Trp Val Pro Phe Ser Thr 100 105 110 Phe Val Phe Gly Pro Asp Met Thr Gln His Trp Arg Ile Ala Gly Leu 115 120 125 Glu Pro Thr Gln Val Val Gly Leu Leu Ala Val Gly Trp Met Asn Leu 130 135 140 Val Thr Cys Val Ala Ala Arg Gly Ile 145 150 

I claim:
 1. A method of inducing an immune response in an animal comprising administering a composition comprising bacterial cells and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier to the animal, wherein the bacterial cells can colonize, infect, or grow in the animal and have a mutated poxA gene which attenuates the virulence of the cells, and wherein the composition is immunogenic.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the bacterial cells express a heterologous gene.
 3. The method of claim 1 wherein the bacterial cells contain a transfer vector.
 4. The method of claim 3 wherein the transfer vector is one that can be transferred into a recipient cell and which contains a gene encoding a product selected from the group consisting of antigens, immunomodulators, enzymes, and expression products which regulate gene expression or cellular activity in the recipient cell.
 5. The method of claim 4 wherein the recipient cell is an animal cell.
 6. The method of claim 5 wherein the gene is operably linked to a promoter functional in the animal.
 7. The method of claim 5 wherein the gene encodes β-galactosidase and is operably linked to an early intermediate cytomegalovirus promoter.
 8. The method of claim 3 wherein the transfer vector includes an endA mutation or a recBC mutation.
 9. The method of claim 2 wherein the heterologous gene encodes an antigen.
 10. The method of claim 9 wherein the heterologous gene is operably linked to the promoter of any gene of the type III secretion system.
 11. The method of claim 10 wherein the gene of the type III secretion system is selected from the group consisting of sip (ssp) genes, yop genes, ipa genes, and hrp genes.
 12. The method of claim 9 wherein the antigen is expressed as a fusion to a Sip (Ssp), Yop, Ipa, or Hrp protein.
 13. The method of claim 1 wherein the bacterial cells were produced from a bacterial cell in which a mutation in the poxA gene was produced by genetic manipulation.
 14. The method of claim 1 wherein the mutated poxA gene is not expressed.
 15. The method of claim 1 wherein the mutated poxA gene is not transcribed.
 16. The method of claim 1 wherein the mutated poxA gene encodes a mutated PoxA protein.
 17. The method of claim 1 wherein mRNA transcribed from the mutated poxA gene is not translated.
 18. The method of claim 1 wherein the bacterial cells are in a family selected from the group consisting of Enterobacteriaceae, Micrococcaceae, Vibrionaceae, Pasteurellaceae, Mycoplasmataceae, and Rickettsiaceae.
 19. The method of claim 18 wherein the bacterial cells are in a genus selected from the group consisting of Salmonella, Shigella, Escherichia, Enterobacter, Serratia, Proteus, Yersinia, Citrobacter, Edwardsiella, Providencia, Klebsiella, Hafnia, Ewingella, Kluyvera, Morganella, Planococcus, Stomatococcus, Micrococcus, Staphylococcus, Vibrio, Aeromonas, Plessiomonas, Haemophilus, Actinobacillus, Pasteurella, Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma, Rickettsia, Coxiella, Rochalimaea, and Ehrlichia.
 20. The method of claim 1 wherein the bacterial cells are in a genus selected from the group consisting of Salmonella, Shigella, Escherichia, Enterobacter, Serratia, Proteus, Yersinia, Citrobacter, Edwardsiella, Providencia, Klebsiella, Hafnia, Ewingella, Kluyvera, Morganella, Planococcus, Stomatococcus, Micrococcus, Staphylococcus, Vibrio, Aeromonas, Plessiomonas, Haemophilus, Actinobacillus, Pasteurella, Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma, Rickettsia, Coxiella, Rochalimaea, Ehrlichia, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Aerococcus, Gemella, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pedicoccus, Bacillus, Corynebacterium, Arcanobacterium, Actinomyces, Rhodococcus, Listeria, Erysipelothrix, Gardnerella, Neisseria, Camylobacter, Arcobacter, Wolinella, Heliobacter, Achomobacter, Acinetobacter, Agrobacterium, Alcaligenes, Chryseomonas, Comamonas, Eikenella, Flavimonas, Flavobacterium, Moraxella, Oligella, Pseudomonas, Skewanella, Weeksella, Xanthomonas, Bordetella, Franciesella, Brucella, Legionella, Afipia, Bartonella, Calymmatobacterium, Cardiobacterium, Streptobacillus, Spirillum, Peptostreptococcus, Peptococcus, Sarcinia, Coprococcus, Ruminococcus, Propionibacterium, Mobiluncus, Bifidobacterium, Eubacterium, Lactobacillus, Rothia, Clostridium, Bacteroides, Porphyromonas, Prevotella, Fusobacterium, Bilophila, Leptotrichia, Wolinella, Acidaminococcus, Megasphaera, Veilonella, Norcardia, Actinomadura, Norcardiopsis, Streptomyces, Micropolysporas, Thermoactinomycetes, Mycobacterium, Treponema, Borrelia, Leptospira, and Chlamydiae.
 21. The method of claim 1 wherein the bacterial cells are selected from the group consisting of Salmomella typhimurium, Escherichia coli, Haemophilus influenzae, Shigella flexneri, Yersinia enterocolitica, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pasteurella multocida, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
 22. The method of claim 1 wherein the bacterial cells are Salmonella typhimurium. 